Most battery metals still come from terrestrial mines, often in regions where labor oversight is patchy.

Cobalt is the clearest example: roughly 70% is dug from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where reports of child labor and unsafe artisanal pits persist despite government crack-downs.

Nickel laterites in parts of Indonesia and the Philippines demand large open pits that relocate villages, carve new haul-roads through rain forest, and expose workers to dust and acid waste. Community protests and legal battles over land rights have become common features of new pit approvals.

Deep-sea mining changes the human-rights map.

Robot harvesters work far offshore, so the danger of on-site injury or forced labor is minimal compared with hand-dug terrestrial shafts. No villages are displaced, and there is no need for guard forces or razor-wire fences.

The biggest on-deck hazards — heavy lifts, high-pressure hoses — are already covered by international maritime safety codes used in oil and gas.

Because nodules carry four critical metals in one rock, a single operation can replace several separate land mines, potentially easing labor stress points across multiple supply chains.

Yet seabed projects aren’t impact-free. Coastal states want a fair share of royalties and local jobs for ship crews, lab technicians, and port services.

The International Seabed Authority requires contractors to file benefit-sharing plans and to source training programs for developing-state nationals.

NGOs argue the definition of “benefit” must extend beyond cash to include transparency and environmental data access.